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TITLE PAGE – – – – – – – – ii DECLARATION – – – – – – – – – iii CERTIFICATION – – – – – – – – iv DEDICATION – – – – – – – – – v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT – – – – – – – vi ABSTRACT – – – – – – – – – x TABLE OF CONTENT – – – – – – – – xi LIST OF TABLES – – –

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Industrial chemistry

An evaluation of the suitability of ceramic raw materials in kebbi state for the production of tableware for small scale industry

An evaluation of the suitability of ceramic raw materials in kebbi state for the production of tableware for small scale industry

TITLE PAGE – – – – – – – – ii DECLARATION – – – – – – – – – iii CERTIFICATION – – – – – – – – iv DEDICATION – – – – – – – – – v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT – – – – – – – vi ABSTRACT – – – – – – – – – x TABLE OF CONTENT – – – – – – – – xi LIST OF TABLES – – – – – – – – xvii LIST OF FIGURES – – – – – – – – xix LIST OF PLATES – – – – – – – – xx ABBREVIATIONS – – – – – – – – xxi CHEMICAL SYMBOLS – – – – – – – xxii DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS – – – – xxiii

Chapter ONE

INTRODUCTION

– – – – – 1
1.1Statement of the Problem – – – – – 5
1.2Aim and Objectives – – – – – – 5
1.3Research Questions – – – – – – – 6
1.4Basic Assumptions – – – – – – – 6
1.5Limitation – – – – – – – – – 7
1.6Delimitation – – – – – – – – 8
1.7Justification for the Study – – – – – 8 xi

Chapter TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

– – – – 12
2.0Introduction – – – – – – – 12
2.1Ceramic Raw Materials – – – – – – – 12
2.2Plastic Raw Materials – – – – – – 14 2.
2.1Clay – – – – – – – – – 14 2.
2.2Kaolin – – – – – – – – 20 2.
2.3Ball Clay — – – – – – – – 25
2.3Non-Plastic Material – – – – – – 26 2.
3.1Feldspar – – – – – – – – 26 2.
3.2Quartz – – – – – – – – 29 2.
3.3Limestone – – – – – – – – 31
2.4Identification of Minerals (Ceramic Raw Materials) – – 32 2.
4.1Fracture – – – – – – – – 32 2.
4.2Lustre – – – – – – – – 33 2.
4.3Cleavage – – – – – – – – 33 2.
4.4Hardness – – – – – – – – 34 2.
4.5Steak – – – – – – – – – 35 2.
4.6Parting – – – – – – – – – 35 2.
4.7Tenacity– – – – – – – – – 35 2.
4.8Crystal Form – – – – – – – – 36 2.
4.9Specific Gravity – – – – – – – – 36
2.5Tableware – – – – – – – 37 xii 2.
5.1Porcelain – – – – – – – – – 38 2.
5.2Body Formulation – – – – – – – 42 2.
5.3Slip Casting – – – – – – – 44 2.
5.4Mould – – – – – – – – – 47 2.
5.5Glaze – – – – – – – – – 48 2.
5.6Firing – – – – – – – – – 50
2.6Small Scale Industry – – – – – – – 52

Chapter THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY – – – 57
3.0Introduction – – – – – – – – 57
3.1Research Design – – – – – – – – 57 3.
1.1Population of the Study – – – – – – – 59 3.
1.2Sample – – – – – – – – – 59 3.
1.3Pilot Study – – – – – – – – – 60
3.2Collection of Raw Materials – – – – – 70 3.
2.1Kaolin – – – – – – – – – 70 3.
2.2Feldspar – – – – – – – – – 70 3.
2.3Quartz – – – – – – – – – 70 3.
2.4Limstone – – – – – – – – 71 3.
2.5Ball Clay – – – – – – – – 71
3.3Preliminary Physical Property Tests for Materials – – 71 3.
3.1Water of Plasticity Test – – – – – – – 72 3.
3.2Plastic Test – – – – – – – – 73 xiii 3.
3.3Visual Texture Test – – – – – – – 73 3.
3.4Linear Shrinkage Test – – – – – – – 73 3.
3.5Porosity Test – – – – – – – 74
3.4Chemical Analysis – – – – – – – 75
3.5Plaster Mould – – – – – – – 75
3.6Sample Processing – – – – – – 77 3.
6.1Preparation of Plastic Materials- – – – – 78 3.
6.2Preparation of Non-Plastic Materials – – – – 79
3.7Body Formulation – – – – – – – 80 3.
7.1Preliminary Body Composition – – – – – 81 3.
7.2Triaxial Blend – – – – – – – – 84 3.7.
2.1Four Selected Body Compositions- – – – – 89 3.7.
2.2Body Composition by Weight – – – – – 92
3.8Casting Slip – – – – – – – – 94 3.
8.1Casting Procedure – – – – – – – 95
3.9Test for Cast Selected Bodies — – – – – 95 3.
9.1Shrinkage Test – – – – – – – – 96 3.
9.2Porosity Test – – – – – – – 96
3.10Glaze – – – – – – – – 97
3.11Firing – – – – – – – – 100

Chapter FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

RESULTS – – – – – – 101
4.0Introduction – – – – – – – – 101 xiv
4.1Samples Collection – – – – – – 101 4.
1.1Kaolin Samples – – – – – – – – 101 4.
1.2Feldspar Sample – – – – – – – 102 4.
1.3Quartz Sample – – – – – – – – 103 4.
1.4Limestone Samples – – – – – – 104 4.
1.5Ball Clay Samples – – – – – – 105
4.2Raw Materials Processing – – – – – – 105 4.
2.1Kaolin and Ball Clay – – – – – – 105 4.
2.2Feldspar and Quartz – – – – – – 106 4.
2.3Limestone – – – – – – – – 107
4.3Chemical and Physical Tests of the Raw Materials Samples – – – – – – 108 4.
3.1Chemical Analysis Results – – – – – 108 4.
3.2Results of Physical Tests – – – – – 115 4.3.
2.1Plasticity Test – – – – – – – – 115 4.3.
2.2Shrinkage Test of Clay Samples – – – – 116 4.3.
2.3Porosity Test of Clay Samples – – – – 117 4.3.
2.4Preliminary Body Composition and Triaxial Blend Test Results – – – – – – 120
4.4Shaping of Wares – – – – – – – 127 4.
4.1Slip Casting Performance Result – – – – 127
4.5Body Slip Compositions by Weight and Casting Procedure- 131 xv
4.6Result of Shrinkage Rate of the Body Compositions – 143
4.7Results of Porosity Rate of Cast Bodies – – – 145
4.8Result of Glaze Test- – – – – – – 147

Chapter FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

DISCUSSION – – – – – – 152
5.1Discussion – – – – – – – – 152
5.2Findings – – – – – – – – 170 CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION – – – – 174
6.0Introduction – – – – – – – – 174
6.1Summary – – – – – – – – 174
6.2Conclusion – – – – – – – – 177
6.3Recommendation – – – – – – 178 REFERENCES – – – – – – – – 179

Project Abstract

The Industrial development of a nation could be achieved through the effective and efficient utilization of the available raw materials and Ceramic Industries are some of the enterprises that rely heavily on such raw materials. Kebbi State has been endowed with natural resources including ceramic raw materials. Data from geological documents and information received from respondents aided the identification of locations and subsequent collection of the raw materials. These are kaolin, ball clay, quartz, feldspar and limestone. Chemical analyses and physical property tests were conducted. The triaxial blend method was adapted to study the effect of the materials while slip casting technique was used to shape the sample wares and the samples were fired in the kerosene kiln. Based on the chemical analyses and physical tests performed, the study found that Kaoje, Koko and Giro Kaolins; Birnin Kebbi and Felande ball clays; Aliero, Dangamaji and Katanga limestones; Bena feldspar and Bena quartz are suitable raw materials for the production of table ware.

Project Overview

INTRODUCTION Industrial development is the keyword used to assess, evaluate and measure the living standards of people of a particular country. Probably, no nation or society can easily survive the prevailing hard and hash economic climate without proper strategies and planning for its industrial takeoff. The persistent economic recessions are sometimes attributed to the low level of industrialization. Ibrahim (2002) confirmed that the Federal Government of Nigeria is doing everything within its powers to “strengthen and energize the economy by promoting industrial development especially the small scale sector.” Already the government has made effort towards stimulating the Industrial growth by establishing the Federal Ministry of Industries and Federal Ministry of Solid Minerals Development. Established for a similar purpose are the National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC), and Industrial Development Centres located in different parts of the country. Others are Project Development Agency (PRODA) Enugu, Federal Institute of Industrial Research Oshodi (FIIRO) Lagos and other relevant agencies. In another perspective, the central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) has created Small and Medium Industries Equity scheme (SMIES) as part of 2 the banking industry’s contribution to the industrial development of Nigeria. The scheme requires all commercial banks to set aside 10 percent of their profit before tax for small and medium scale industries development. In the year, 2003, the Federal Government has established the Small and Medium Enterprises Development Agency (SMEDA) to promote and facilitate the development programme in the small and medium enterprises sub-sector of the nation’s economy. Seemingly, all these steps and actions taken by the government are to ensure the smooth promotion of the small-scale industries for the simple reason that they play significant and tremendous role in the economic growth of Nigeria. Ibrahim (2002) described small-scale industries as catalysts to the economic and industrial development of any nation. It is pertinent at this point to note that nations like USA, Britain, France, China, Japan became industrialized sequel to the development of small scale industries. The newly industrialized countries like Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Africa and the likes attained their present economic and industrial growth as a result of the activities of the smallscale industries. Similarly, Randali (2003) revealed that over the years, different regimes in Nigeria have created policies that are designed to promote small-scale enterprises. Mabawonku (1977) pointed out that small-scale industries could reduce rural urban migration and poverty. To this end, they enhance 3 employment opportunities and encourage the use of locally sourced raw materials. Also these industries accelerate the improvement of national income better than the intensive large-scale sector. Ahuwan (1987) confirmed that, small-scale industries can be reliable source of creating employment to the ever increasing youths. Essentially, industrial development of a nation could likely be realized with effective and efficient utilization of the available natural resources’. Indeed ceramic industries are the type of enterprises that require the use of such natural resources like kaolin, quartz, feldspar and limestone. Klien (2001) revealed that the main ingredients or components used in the ceramic industries are kaolin, clay, talc, felspar, quartz, limestone, dolomite and the likes. It is clear that one form of ceramic product or the other is being used to serve human needs. For example, Oliver (1997) explained that ceramic meets the need of almost every community in the area of cooking, storage, preservation and construction. Apart from its essential utility at home, builders employed structural ceramic products such as bricks and tiles for execution of projects. Interestingly, electrical engineers depend greatly on ceramic products such as electrical insulators and sockets for their jobs. Based on this account, industrial development as the basis for meaningful economic growth can be promoted in Kebbi State by the establishment of industries especially 4 for small-scale sector. However, to accomplish effective industrial take off, the presence of raw materials is of supreme importance. Kebbi state is said to have been endowed with abundant natural resources. Suraj (2004) disclosed that Kebbi has a fair share of the Nigeria’s known natural resources. The state has vast raw materials resources. In fact the size of the state, its strategic location and position in the country places it at a great advantage. Perhaps the most vital of these endowments as far as industrialization is concerned is the availability of raw materials in various parts of the state. Suraj (2004) further stated that there are records confirming the occurrence of variety of minerals in commercial quantities in Kebbi State. They include kaolin, refractory clay, gold, limestone, talc, phosphates, granite, marble and feldspar. For this reason, the setting up of ceramic small-scale industries might be possible in Kebbi State because of the availability of the raw materials. Kebbi State may attain gradual industrial development if emphasis is laid on small-scale sector. Umar (2000) found out that; In the field of solid minerals resources, the state is well blessed with a lot of deposits, which have either been identified or expected to be present because of the geophysical nature of our land. Such deposits are kaolin, gold, limestone, iron-ore, bauxite, clays, salt, potash, manganese, silica sand, mica and feldspar to mention just a few of the endowments. These resources when fully exploited will give Kebbi State a place of pride in the nation’s economic system. 5 However, it is distressing to note that Kebbi State has no single functional ceramic industry despite the abundant raw material deposits in the state. Suraj (2004) observed that, Kebbi State remains among the least industrially developed states in the federation, even though it has been blessed with abundant mineral resources. Against this background, the researcher is motivated to undertake a study on the Evaluation of the Suitability of Ceramic Raw Materials in Kebbi State for the Production of Tableware for to Small-Scale Industry. 1.1 Statement of the Problem The problem of this study is the unidentification, unevaluation and unutilization of ceramic raw materials in Kebbi State into suitable products of porcelain as tableware. 1.2 Aim and Objectives The aim of this study is to critically examine some of the selected ceramic raw materials in Kebbi State and to evaluate their suitability for the production of tableware for small scale industry. The objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To identify the locations of ceramic raw materials in Kebbi State. 2. To identify through experiments the suitability of some of the selected ceramic raw materials. 6 3. To formulate good working porcelain body for the production of tableware. 1.3 Research Questions 1. What are the types of ceramic raw materials found in Kebbi State? 2. What is the adequacy of the raw material found in Kebbi State for ceramic Small-Scale Industry? 3. What are the Chemical and physical properties of the ceramic raw materials found from different locations in Kebbi State? 4. What is the role of ball clay in enhancing the plastic state of the slip produced from the ceramic raw materials found in Kebbi State for casting? 5. Could the slip produced from the ceramic raw materials found in Kebbi state be suitable for casting without the addition of deflocculants? 6. Could the ceramic raw materials found in Kebbi State be used to formulate glaze recipes for the study? 1.4 Basic Assumptions The research is based on the following assumptions: 7 1. That raw materials identified would be suitable for ceramic production; 2. That adequate facilities to process the raw materials would be available; 3. That Information obtained from respondents and geological documents would facilitate identification of locations of the raw materials;. 4. That there would be availability of facilities to conduct tests. 5. That the finished products would or would not display all the characteristics of porcelains, particularly, translucency. 1.5 Limitation 1. There was lack of adequate facilities to process raw materials in the Department of Industrial Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The study made contact with relevant agencies and organizations where facilities were available for the processing and testing of materials; 2. Consequent to the insufficient knowledge concerning the locations of ceramic materials, the study treated information obtained from geological documents and other respondents; 8 3. Only slip casting technique was used as shaping method for the production of sample tableware (simple shape only) for this study. 1.6 Delimitation Kebbi State as earlier explained is naturally well endowed with various and varied mineral resources. However, the study is delimited both in scope and materials significantly to Kebbi State kaolin, quartz, feldspar and limestone. 1.7 Justification for the Study Ceramic is one of the first useful arts to be developed by man. It has essentially maintained its usefulness Ahuwan (1987) revealed that ceramic besides its tradition of practice still meets the daily needs of every community or society. For example, people seek for the services of ceramic products for cooking, storage as well as for aesthetic values. Ceramics in the contemporary scene provides wide range of services. Sullayman (1997) disclosed that there has been an increasing demand for ceramic wares throughout West African sub-region particularly in Nigeria. He re-iterated that the growing demand of ceramics in the modern world, has covered the field of “architectural, sanitary, electrical 9 and even electronic”. For instance, in architecture and construction, ceramic provides bricks, tiles and other structural clay products. Sanitary wares of all sorts are enhanced and in electrical work ceramic provides electrical insulators, sockets and other elements used in electrical services. On the other hand, ceramic contributes in the automobile industry by providing spark plugs and cylindrical pipes for transporting water, sewage wastes and other liquids. The use of ceramic products are numerous. Thus the importance of ceramic in the industrialization of any nation cannot be over-stressed. Opoku (2003) opined that the development of raw materials has an enormous role in the socio-economic life of the people of any nation. He further emphasized that its development as a sub-sector of the economy helps to advance the industrial growth and self-reliance through the effective use of the local raw materials as inputs for the industries. Raw materials that exist in Kebbi State are part of the wealth possession of the people of Kebbi State and the country in general. In this connection, the exploitation and utilization of the mineral resources are essential in the improvement of the standard of living of some people of the state. Similarly, clarion calls and campaigns on the importance of selfreliance and industrialization have been vigorously pursued by the federal, 10 state and local governments. Alkali (2003) in support of the above assertion stated that the problem of unemployment and poverty forced the Federal Government to establish the National Directorate of Employment (NDE) in 1986. According to him, the organ is charged with the responsibility of mapping out strategies to curb the menace of unemployment in the country. Amongst the objectives of the National Directorate of Employment is the need to develop and groom young entrepreneurs who are properly equipped with technical and managerial skills to successful start and manage enterprises such as small-scale industries. When industries are put in place, employment opportunities will be created for our teeming youths. As a result of this, the vital role of industrialization will be inculcated in the minds of entrepreneurs. By extension, it may encourage the entrepreneurs establish more industries in their respective localities. Thus, eventually reduce rural urban migration. Therefore, the need for research on the Evaluation of the Suitability of Ceramic Raw Materials in Kebbi State for the Production of Tableware for Small-Scale Industry is not only relevant at this time of industrialization drive but quite significant in the development of ceramic in the country. Furthermore, it is expected that the outcome of this study will contribute towards the industrial and economic growth of Kebbi state. In addition, the 11 study is also expected to contribute meaningfully to the development of ceramic literature in any higher institution of learning and research institutes. Finally, it is hoped that the study will offer useful suggestions to manufacturers, entrepreneurs, investors and interested persons or organizations about ceramic raw materials in Kebbi State. 12

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An evaluation of the suitability of ceramic raw materials in kebbi state for the production of tableware for small scale industry

Table Of Contents

Chapter ONE

Chapter TWO

Chapter THREE

Chapter FOUR

Chapter FIVE

Project Abstract

Project Overview

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