EFFECTS OF METHANOL LEAF EXTRACT OF MORINGA OLEIFERA ON NEUROBEHAVIOURAL AND OXIDATIVE STRESS CHANGES INDUCED BY SUBCHRONIC EXPOSURE TO CHLORPYRIFOS IN MALE WISTAR RATS

• <p>&nbsp;                <b>TABLE OF CONTENTS&nbsp;</b></p><p>Declaration....................................................................................................................... iii&nbsp;</p><p>Certification ..................................................................................................................... iv&nbsp;</p><p>Dedication......................................................................................................................... v&nbsp;</p><p>Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................... vi&nbsp;</p><p>Abstract........................................................................................................................... vii&nbsp;</p><p>Table of Contents............................................................................................................. ix&nbsp;</p><p>List of Tables................................................................................................................. xiv&nbsp;</p><p>List of Figures................................................................................................................. xv&nbsp;</p><p>List of Plates ................................................................................................................. xvii&nbsp;</p><p>List of Abbreviations................................................................................................... xviii&nbsp;</p><p>

Chapter ONE

INTRODUCTION

• ........................................................................... 1&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.1Background ......................................................................................................... 1&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.2Statement of Research Problem ........................................................................ 3&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.3Justification ......................................................................................................... 5&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.4General Aim of the Study................................................................................... 6&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.5Objectives of the Study....................................................................................... 6&nbsp;</p><p>
• 1.6Research Hypothesis (H0)................................................................................... 7&nbsp;</p><p>

Chapter TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

• .............................................................. 8&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.1Pesticides.............................................................................................................. 8&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 1.1Classification of pesticides ................................................................................... 8&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.2Organophosphates.............................................................................................. 9&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 2.1Classification of organophosphates...................................................................... 9&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 2.2History of organophosphates.............................................................................. 10&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 2.3Uses of organophosphates .................................................................................. 11&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 2.4Mechanism of action of organophosphates ........................................................ 12&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 2.5Organophosphate toxicity................................................................................... 13&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.3Chlorpyrifos ...................................................................................................... 19&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 3.1Pharmacodynamics of chlorpyrifos.................................................................... 20&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 3.2Pharmacokinetics of chlorpyrifos....................................................................... 20&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 3.3Chlorpyrifos toxicity........................................................................................... 22&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.4Formation and Action of Reactive Oxygen Species....................................... 29&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 4.1Effects of free radicals on biological systems .................................................... 31&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.5Antioxidants and their Defence System.......................................................... 33&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 5.1Antioxidants........................................................................................................ 33&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 5.2Antioxidant defence system................................................................................ 35&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.6Oxidative Stress - a Mechanism of Chlorpyrifos Toxicity ............................ 36&nbsp;</p><p>
• 2.7Moringa oleifera ................................................................................................ 38&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 7.1Moringa oleifera: description ............................................................................. 38&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 7.2Nutritional properties and ethnomedical uses of Moringa oleifera.................... 39&nbsp;</p><p>2.
• 7.3Antioxidant properties of Moringa oleifera........................................................ 40&nbsp;</p><p>

Chapter THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................ 42&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.1Plant Materials.................................................................................................. 42&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 1.1Plant collection, identification, extraction and preparation ................................ 42&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 1.2Phytochemical screening of leaf extract ............................................................. 42&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 1.3Quantitative analysis of methanol extract of Moringa oleifera leaf for flavonoids and antioxidant vitamins..................................................................................... 43&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.2Chemical Acquisition and Preparation .......................................................... 43&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.3LD50 Determination .......................................................................................... 43&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.4Experimental Animals...................................................................................... 44&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.5Experimental Groupings/Treatments............................................................. 44&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.6Evaluation of neurobehavioural and cognitive changes................................ 45&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.1Open-field assessment ........................................................................................ 45&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.2Assessment of neuromuscular coordination …………………………………….…...46&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.3Assessment of motor coordination ..................................................................... 46&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.4Assessment of locomotor efficiency................................................................... 47&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.5Assessment of motor strength............................................................................. 47&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.6Assessment of excitability score......................................................................... 47&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.7Assessment of depression ................................................................................... 48&nbsp;</p><p>3.
• 6.8Evaluation of learning and short-term memory.................................................. 48&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.7Preparation of Brain Samples ......................................................................... 49&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.8Assessment of Acetylcholinesterase Activity .................................................. 49&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.9Assessment of Brain Lipoperoxidation........................................................... 50&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.10Assessment of Brain Antioxidant Enzyme Activities .................................... 50&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.11Histopathology .................................................................................................. 51&nbsp;</p><p>
• 3.12Data Analysis..................................................................................................... 52&nbsp;</p><p>

Chapter FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

• RESULTS.................................................................................... 53&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.1Determination of Median Lethal Dose............................................................ 53&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 1.1Determination of median lethal dose for chlorpyrifos........................................ 53&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 1.2Determination of median lethal dose for Moringa oleifera leaf extract............. 55&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.2Moringa oleifera Leaf: Methanol Extract Characteristics............................ 55&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 2.1Methanol extract yield of moringa oleifera leaf................................................. 55&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 2.2Phytochemical components of methanol extracts of Moringa oleifera leaf....... 55&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 2.3Flavonoid and antioxidant vitamin contents of Moringa oleifera leaf extract ... 57&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.3Subchronic Toxicity Study............................................................................... 59&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 3.1Clinical signs....................................................................................................... 59&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.4Effect of Treatments on Neurobehaviour....................................................... 59&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.1Effect of treatments on open-field performance ................................................. 59&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.2Effect of treatments on beam-walk score ........................................................... 75&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.3Effect of treatments on ladder-walk performance .............................................. 77&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.4Effect of treatments on inclined plane performance........................................... 80&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.5Effect of treatments on forepaw grip time .......................................................... 82&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.6Effect of treatments on excitability scores.......................................................... 85&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.7Effect of treatments on forced swimming test.................................................... 88&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.8Effect of treatments on learning acqusition ........................................................ 91&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 4.9Effect of treatments on short-term memory........................................................ 91&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.5Effect of Treatments on Brain Acetylcholinesterase Activity....................... 94&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.6Effect of Treatments on Brain Malondialdehyde Concentration................. 94&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.7Effect of Treatments on Brain Antioxidant Enzymes ................................... 97&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 7.1Effect of treatments on brain superoxide dismutase activity.............................. 97&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 7.2Effect of treatments on brain glutathione peroxidase activity ............................ 97&nbsp;</p><p>4.
• 7.3Effect of treatments on brain catalase activity.................................................... 97&nbsp;</p><p>
• 4.8Effect of Treatments on Brain Histo-architecture....................................... 102&nbsp;</p><p>

Chapter FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• DISCUSSION ............................................................................. 109&nbsp;</p><p>CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................ 130&nbsp;</p><p>
• 6.1Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 130&nbsp;</p><p>6.
• 2.Recommendations........................................................................................... 130&nbsp;</p><p>6.
• 2.1Specific recommendations................................................................................ 130&nbsp;</p><p>6.
• 2.2General recommendations ................................................................................ 131&nbsp;</p><p>REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….……… 132 <br></p>