Project Abstract

<p> </p><p>Physicochemical and bacteriological analyses of borehole water samples<br>were randomly collected from ten boreholes which supply drinking water to<br>various communities of Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government<br>Areas of Enugu, Nigeria. The boreholes were sampled in both dry and rainy<br>seasons. The following physicochemical parameters pH, temperature,<br>colour, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, hardness,<br>calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, alkalinity, acidity, lead, copper,<br>cadmium and iron were determined using standard methods. E. coli count<br>was determined by membrane lauryl sulphate broth method. Results of<br>physicochemical tests were in compliance with WHO guideline values,<br>except in the cases of sulphate level of 1,670 mg/L in water sample from<br>Mpu in Aninri L.G.A., high chloride levels in samples from Ndeaboh and<br>Mpu with values of 18,088 and 1,095 mg/L respectively. Similarly, sodium<br>was also very high in the two boreholes, 5,625 and 8,500 mg/L. The water<br>samples showed acid pH particularly in Oji River with values ranging from<br>4.30 to 6.30. Most of the water samples were soft waters, except samples<br>from Ndeaboh, Mpu and Mgbowo with hardness values of 6,250, 6,250 and<br>840 mg/L respectively. Trace metal concentrations were below WHO<br>guideline values, except samples from Mgbowo and Nnenwe with iron<br>values of 4.54 and 3.13 mg/L. E. coli was isolated in two boreholes located<br>in unkept surroundings in Oduma and Agbogugu with E. coli counts of 7<br>and 108 cfu/100 mL respectively. Generally, the borehole waters are<br>considered safe for drinking except these ones polluted with E. coli and<br>sodium chloride. The effects of unsafe drinking water are discussed, with<br>recommendations to the Authorities regarding the safety measures to be<br>applied.<br>xii</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p><strong>&nbsp;</strong></p> <br><p></p>

Project Overview

<p> 1.0 INTRODUCTION<br>Water is one of the earth’s most precious resources. Water is often referred<br>to as a universal solvent because it dissolves many minerals. It can exist in<br>three states as liquid, gas (at 100 oC) and solid (at freezing temperature of &lt;<br>4 oC). Water is fundamentally important to all plants, animals including<br>man1. Without it, there is no life. Good drinking water is not a luxury but<br>one of the most essential amenities of life. Although water is essential for<br>human survival, many are denied access to sufficient potable water supply<br>and sufficient water to maintain basic hygiene. Globally, over one billion<br>people lack access to clean safe water2,3,4. The majority of these people are<br>in Asia (20%) and sub-Sahara Africa (42%). Further, about 2.4 billion<br>people lack adequate sanitation worldwide 5.<br>It is estimated that &gt; 80% of ill health in developing countries are water and<br>sanitation-related6. Thus, lack of safe drinking water supply and poor<br>hygienic practices due to lack of water are associated with high morbidity<br>and mortality from excreta-related diseases.<br>Consequently, water-borne pathogens infect around 250 million people each<br>year resulting in 10 to 20 million deaths world-wide5. An estimated 80% of<br>xiv<br>all child deaths under the age of five years in developing countries result<br>from diarrhoea diseases7,8.<br>Lack of safe drinking water and inadequate sanitation measures could also<br>lead to a number of diseases such as dysentery, cholera and typhoid9,10.<br>Against this backdrop, the supply of safe drinking water to all has been at<br>the front burner at the United Nations Millennium Development Goals<br>(MDGs) to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development worldwide<br>especially in developing countries. Her target for water, is to halve by 2015,<br>the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water<br>and basic sanitation. However, it is envisaged that this target may not be<br>easy in developing countries because of (a) high population growth, (b)<br>conflict and political instability and (c) low priority given to water and<br>sanitation programmes in developing countries.<br>1.1 Ground Water as Source of Portable Water.<br>Water exists in several forms in the environment including sea water, seaice,<br>fresh water, and water vapour as clouds and mist. As water moves<br>through the environment it picks up gases and elements, flow to the sea and<br>through ground in an endless process known as the hydrologic cycle.<br>xv<br>The hydrological cycle ensures that water available on the earth is renewable<br>as it passes through a cycle of evaporation, condensation and ultimately back<br>to water in an endless cycle.<br>Groundwater occurs as part of the hydrologic cycle, which is the movement<br>of water between the earth and the atmosphere through evaporation,<br>condensation, transpiration and precipitation. The underground area where<br>water exists is referred to as an aquifer which is a layer of porous substrate<br>that contains and transmits groundwater11. Therefore, groundwater when<br>properly harnessed will provide consistent supplies of potable water because<br>it’s believed to be good.<br>1.2 Water pollution<br>Water pollution as defined by GESAMP (1988)12 means ‘‘the introduction<br>by man directly or indirectly of substances or energy which result in such<br>harmful effects as<br>· harm to living resources,<br>· hazards to human health,<br>· hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing,<br>· impairment of water quality with respect to its uses in agricultural,<br>industrial and often economic activities, and<br>xvi<br>· reduction of amenities’’.<br>It can also be seen as anything whether physical or chemical that affects the<br>natural condition or the intended use of water. It is clear that water pollution<br>depends on the ultimate use to which the water in question will be put. In<br>other words, water which might be considered not polluted or satisfactory<br>for certain industrial use might very well be considered polluted or<br>unsatisfactory for drinking.<br>With increasing population, there is need for more water, and groundwater<br>has proved the most reliable resources for meeting dispersed rural water<br>demand in sub-Saharan Africa13. However, several practices such as the<br>application of fertilizers and agrochemicals, abandoned or inactive mine<br>sites, septic tanks, landfill etc, if not managed effectively could contaminate<br>and eventually pollute groundwater. The quality of water in boreholes is also<br>affected by the presence of heavy metals in the soil such as Pb, Mn, Cd, Cu,<br>Fe, Zn, Cr etc. There is also the problem of microbial pollution.<br>1.3 Study area<br>The study took place in Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government<br>Areas of Enugu State, Nigeria. These Local Government Areas make up<br>xvii<br>Aninri/Awgu/Oji River Federal Constituency. Geographically located within<br>Latitude 05o 55/ – 06o 20/ N and Longitude 07o 10/- 07o 40/ E. Aninri has clay<br>and loamy flat lands; Oji River has sandy flat lands, while Awgu has clay<br>and stony lands with hilly topography. Petty trading and subsistence<br>agriculture are the major occupation of the people. There is no notable<br>industry located in this area and its environs.<br>1.4 Statement of the Problem<br>· In spite of various researches conducted on groundwater (boreholes),<br>there is no published data available to determine the water quality of<br>the boreholes in Aninri, Awgu and Oji River Local Government Areas<br>of Enugu State.<br>· No evidence of any form of maintenance or any assessment carried<br>out on the quality of water being pumped.<br>1.5 Aim and Objectives<br>This study was to determine the quality of water from boreholes in this area<br>as to ascertain its safety for consumption in relation to standards set by the<br>World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water.<br>xviii<br>The objectives of this study are (i) to determine the quality of water from the<br>boreholes in Aninri/Awgu/Oji River Local Government Areas of Enugu<br>state, Nigeria, and (ii) provide baseline data of determined parameters for<br>future assessment.<br>The specific objectives were to:<br>· Determine the levels of these parameters in the borehole water: pH,<br>temperature, colour, odour, conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS),<br>turbidity, total acidity, total alkalinity, hardness, SO4<br>2-, PO4<br>3-, Cl-,<br>NO3<br>-, K, Ca, Mg, Cd, Cu, Pb and Fe.<br>· Determine any significant seasonal variation on the parameters.<br>· Access the level of bacteria contamination in the boreholes.<br>· Compare the level of the parameters with WHO guideline values.<br>· Ascertain the possible causes of any contaminations in order to make<br>appropriate recommendations to alleviate the problem.<br>1.6 Justification of Study<br>Water supply sources for inhabitants of the Local Government Areas under<br>study include, supply from water tankers, stored rain water, streams and<br>borehole/well waters. However, because of population and urbanization, <br></p>